Use of Persona in Writing in Imperial China Essay Example Essay Example

Use of Persona in Writing in Imperial China Essay Example Paper Use of Persona in Writing in Imperial China Essay Introduction The late Ming and Qing periods in imperial China saw the advent of literature gleaned from the brushstrokes of courtesans, women of occupations originally seen as men’s pleasure diversions rather than socially acceptable careers. However, this notion of courtesan culture was modified soon as these courtesans revealed a particular talent that went beyond the ability to pleasure and entertain: writing (Ropp, 1997).But the stigma that was—and still is—associated with the concept of selling sex and entertainment proved to be a hindrance in the cultural and social importance of these women’s literary work; much had to be addressed and refined, on top of the more debatable qualities of topic, censorship, and reputation. Thus the veritable solution appropriated by the collective group of literary courtesans was the assumption of personas or images, in order to define their own voices and identities. Such explorations took them to extreme avenues for self-expressi on, ranging from the basic effort of acquiring new names in terms of authorship, to the channeling of maleness in order to escape the confines of female passivity and gender restrictions. Yet no matter what persona was chosen by the writer, three common themes were almost always seen in their work: love and talent; glamour and nostalgia; and sex, bondage, and shame (Ropp, 1997). These themes, intertwined in their occupation’s nature, spoke of the underpinnings that formed the business of courtesan work, on its surface ongoing transactions between rich and poor families; the poor sold their daughters off as courtesans, but were eventually trained in various arts that proved beneficial in their entrance into the homes of the rich as concubines and servants (Ropp, 1997). Courtesans acquired the desire to be free from imposed social constraints, in order to appreciate the kind of life that required the use of intellect, and not just the expected skills in providing pleasure. As i llustrated by Liu Rushi in her poem â€Å"Following the Same Rhyme, a Respectful Harmonizing†, the line â€Å"I wish to follow Zhiyi and drift along the swift stream† (Wai-Yee, 1997) implied a need to rid herself of the shackles of social norm and the adjudged purposes of her being a courtesan and discover worlds not usually available to her. This also connotes a yearning to be of a different person, as the reference to ‘Zhiyi’ may pertain to the writer’s wish to mirror the same qualities.II. The Art of Naming and the Formation of IdentityThe most basic act of changing oneself and appropriating a different persona is in the changing of names, for it functions to create a host of images and identities far removed from the actual person. The same Liu Rushi made use of several, two of which were ‘Yun’, referring to clouds, and ‘Yin’, which meant reclusion of being hidden. Such names, popular among courtesans of the period, had general allusions to both desire and exclusivity (Wai-Yee, 1997)—assumed to be the positive versions of the qualities assigned to women of this persuasion.Another famous courtesan who had taken on a ‘style name’ was Wang Wei, who was known as Xiuwei, and even earlier as the Person of the Way of the Straw Cape—an implied admission of her chosen way of life. As Xiuwei, she wrote: â€Å"If one were not actually born a man, one cannot cleanse the world of evil.I noted my longing for streams and mountains† (Author, year, p. 369); this showed her consistent affinity for nature and the pureness of environment, which coincided with her chosen names.Wang Wei’s sworn sister Yang Wan, also a courtesan, also wrote via a different name—Wanshu—and was known to excel in poetry and the art of calligraphy. If Xiuwei promoted her love of the outdoors, Wanshu chose to dedicate herself to the fine lines of emotive poems through a sensitivity that matched her talent for executing careful brushstrokes. Her poem â€Å"Autumn Feelings† bore the evidence of this accomplishment, as revealed by her lines: â€Å"Solitary, I rest my chin on my hand, overcome by sorrow,/I’d like to tell of my passion, but am then filled with shame./Since ancient times, life has been like this for the ‘poorly-fated,’/How dare I seek to be like mandarin ducks, growing old together?† (Wanshu, in Author, year, p. 373). It is evident how Wanshu took her learning of her life as a courtesan to channel a persona different from her own; she talked of ‘passion’, in terms obviously alien to her known world of pleasure, and redefined it to approximate the aspirations she held in her heart—outwardly manifested in her demonstrated talent in calligraphy.Because of the universe these courtesans were relegated to, stereotyped and viewed with pity at best and disgust at worst, they found the opportunity for rebirth and renewal in the use of names. Through them, they were able to express thoughts and choices they were never allowed to make, since most courtesans were practically children when they were sold off to their establishments or to rich men.III. Drama and Creativity in Self-DefinitionAcquiring a new persona was also achieved by courtesans by self-dramatization, done via dramatic gestures or appropriating the language of the theater (Wai-Yee, 1997). Most courtesans were prone to dramatizing their emotions akin to performing, and this was soon revealed in yet another method they employed to convey different personas. However, as with the rest of women in imperial China, the efforts of courtesans to employ the creative literary arts of drama and fiction were seen of less importance (Author, year); ironically, this somehow matched their social status of being of a lower class than the average female member of society.More than being known for her poetry, Lian Xiaoyou is acknowledged to be â€Å"one of the first female playwrights in Chinese literary history† (Author, year), and is credited with the play United Primes—a tale centering on Huang Chonggu, a woman who presented herself as a man to be freed from being sentenced to jail. Here Lian wrote some of Huang’s most compromising lines: â€Å"But if you, Governor, deign to accept me as your ‘bare-bellied guy,’/We’ll have to first beg Heaven to quickly turn me into a man!† (in Author, year, p. 363). The dramatic implications of this work illustrated the combination of a cunning mind and wit, which were both exhibited by the play’s main character and by the writer herself.Jiang Pianpian, a courtesan famous for her lyric poetry, was also well-versed in the talent of song and singing—thus explaining her choice of literature. An example of the drama she employed in her poetry was evident in her â€Å"Songs of Resentment†, wherein she wrote: â€Å"How ca n you say the road is long?/It is your mind that makes you stay./My heart is like a wagon wheel:/Each day it goes ten thousand miles!† (in Author, year, p. 365). Using this kind of language shows the flair for drama and emotion; the inclusion of metaphors, such as the ‘wagon wheel’ to refer to her heart, only brings it to a level only available to courtesans and their ability to delve into themes and thoughts that explicitly convey longing and want for a man. Another courtesan, Ma Xianglan, was also famous for her audacity to bring the drama into the actual expression of courtesan life. A poem she wrote on a parrot may have been indicative of her feelings for a lover: â€Å"My Snowdress, I love you if no one else does;/Always your partner in inner quarter feelings.† (Author, year, p. 367).Evidently, the courtesans’ choice of drama to convey an assortment of themes brings about their familiarity with emotional content, through a manner easily tied in with the art of performance. Since the inherent purpose of a courtesan was to provide entertainment and pleasure without the restrictive ties of social rule, it may be safe to conclude that the use of drama and dramatization provided them with a means to create their sense of self; the avenue to express their deepest emotions would have had little or no importance within the parameters of courtesan work.IV. Metaphors of Maleness and AspirationThe reference to the courtesan-playwright Lian Xiaoyou and her play’s theme already shows the popular device of disguising females as males; the reason for this is quite easily determined, one that may be used to generalize the purposes of not just courtesan writers, but women writers of imperial China as a whole. Because of society and culture’s preference for the male gender, women had to find a way to draw themselves up to par—and one manner this was done was through appropriating masculine qualities, in this case within the grounds of literature.However, the objective of the writing was not simply to transform the female persona to male; much of its significance was in the merging of both masculine and feminine traits, clearly referencing the known characteristics of active and passive, aggression and submission, to create literature that embodied what could be the ideal. Liu Rushi had been acknowledged for her use of the male and female perspective in her poem â€Å"Male Spirit of the River Lao†, in which the use of a woman’s interaction with a male spirit reveals the equality of their positions (Wai-Yee, 1997). In the case of Wan Fazhi, who was not a courtesan but exemplified the purposes of these women in referring to maleness as a trait, her acceptance as a writer was only made possible by her tale of a man’s spirit possessing her; thus the words she spoke were credited to the male spirit, and were treated with relevance (Author, year).Behind the use of male metaphors and the women writers’ clamor for the same importance accorded to their male counterparts, the courtesan had a more definite reason for doing so—because of their tendency and affinity for victimhood (Wai-Yee, 1997). This concept fused the usage of drama and questions of gender equality in writing, as the courtesan was primarily viewed more as a commodity rather than an individual, in the transaction of pleasure and sale. They capitalized on their ‘victim’ experience to create another persona, as seen in this poem by Chen Yuanyuan: â€Å"Then she was burdened by her fame./Noble and powerful houses vied with each other for her possession,/.But she was wrong to blame the ruthless wind for scattering the fallen blossoms,/For boundless spring has returned to heaven and earth.† (Chen, in Wai-Yee, 1997).V. ConclusionCourtesans in imperial China—as well as their counterparts in modern time—were never seen beyond their professed ability to provide pleasure through sensuality. Therefore it is logical how these women, many of whom were gifted with enough talent to rival any male or female writer, would resort to creating personas for themselves. Perhaps it was not simply the shame of being classified under the kind of occupation they had, but the realization that freedom from constraint and exploring worlds outside the ones assigned to them would be met by assuming personas or images far from their known selves. By doing so, they not only provided material for extensive study in the field of imperial Chinese literature, but also an awakening of the sleeping promises inherent in their real personas. Use of Persona in Writing in Imperial China Essay Thank you for reading this Sample!

The Proofreading Zone A Haunted Comma Splice

The Proofreading Zone A Haunted Comma Splice The Proofreading Zone: A Haunted Comma Splice Here at Proofed, we work hard to ensure your writing is error free. And since we’re experienced professionals, most of the time we feel like we’ve seen it all. But now and then we come across something truly mysterious. Something that can’t be explained using the standard rules of punctuation. And since it’s Halloween today, we thought we’d invite you to hear a tale of terror and typos in†¦ The Proofreading Zone! The Client We met Mr. Robins on Thursday February 15th, 2018. It was a cloudy morning at Proofreading Towers. It promised to be like any other day. But the drizzle had turned to rain by lunchtime, with darker clouds on the horizon. It was appropriate, perhaps, that Mr. Robins appeared, silhouetted in our door, the moment the first clap of thunder rang out. The panic in his voice was clear. It was hard to even understand what he was saying. All we could make out were the words â€Å"The sentences! They run on and on and on!!!† He looked troubled. His hair was a mess. And he was clutching a memory stick in one hand, muttering to himself. After a few minutes, he collapsed. The Problem Arises†¦ We tried to make Mr. Robins comfortable when he woke up, and after a strong coffee he was able to explain his situation. It all began while putting the finishing touches on a business report. He noticed a comma splice on page one and corrected it. But when he went back to check the document before printing, it was back. â€Å"Odd,† thought Mr. Robins, â€Å"I’d swear I corrected that already.† But it only took a moment to replace the comma with a full stop again. And so he hit print, saved the file, and closed Microsoft Word. But when the printer had churned out the report and Mr. Robins checked that all the pages were there, the first thing he saw was the comma splice. It was back. The same comma. Mr. Robins was confused. Had he hit print before correcting it? He wasn’t sure anymore. He opened the document on his computer again and there it was: a comma splice on page one. â€Å"I must be going mad,† he told himself, before deleting the comma splice again, carefully saving the document, and hitting print. We’re sure we don’t have to tell you what happened next. You Can’t Escape Your Errors†¦ Mr. Robins stayed late at work that evening. His boss asked him if he was okay, as he had spent the entire afternoon marching back and forth between his computer and the office printer, looking more and more exasperated. Not wanting to admit he was at war with a comma, though, he forced a smile and said that everything was fine. Just some computer issues. But everything wasn’t fine. No matter what he did, the comma splice always returned. He tried copying the text to a new document. But it would just appear there, too. He tried working on different computers. But none of them were immune to this mysterious, impossible comma. He even tried printing the document and using corrector fluid to white out the comma splice. But when he tried to add a period on top of the correction, the ink ran and formed a perfect comma. This is when Mr. Robins broke. He screamed so loudly that he felt ashamed, even though everyone in the office had gone home hours ago. After he had calmed down, he decided to save the document to a memory stick and do the same. He could work on it more before bed. But even at home, the problem persisted. No matter what he did, he could not get rid of that comma splice. It was as if it were taunting him. He tried looking online to no avail. Everyone treated him like he was making some kind of weird joke. Eventually, at 2am, he decided to go to bed. That night, Mr. Robins dreamed of commas†¦ The Next Morning After getting out of bed, Mr. Robins tried not to think about punctuation. Instead, he made breakfast and settled down to read the New York Times. But right there, in the first article, he spotted a comma splice half way down the page. â€Å"Oh great,† he thought. â€Å"Another one.† He decided to move on to the next article and turned the page. But right there at the top of the first column, he saw a comma splice in a headline. And another in some ad copy. And two more on the next page. This was getting silly. But Mr. Robins didn’t have time to think about it. He was going to be late for work, so he put the paper down and left the house. He saw four more comma splices on the way to the office: two on billboards and one on a sign held up by a homeless man at the side of the road. And things didn’t improve after he got to work. There was a memo there on his desk, waiting for him. It said: You left a lot of paper on your desk yesterday, can you make sure to tidy up next time? Who had left it there? Did they know about the comma splice? Had they done it deliberately? He looked around to see if anyone was laughing, for any sign it might be a prank. But nobody was looking. Instead, he booted up his computer and checked his emails. The first header he saw said: Big project coming up, clear your schedule Another comma splice. When he opened the email, it was one long sentence, strung together with dozens of commas. And so was the next email. And the next one. What was happening? Mr. Robins stood up and stepped back from his desk. Someone asked him if he was all right, but he didn’t reply. He just stared at his computer, and then picked up his memory stick and left without a word. He needed to find someone who would understand. Someone who could fix this comma splice for good. And so he ran from his office, passing signs in shop windows, trying not to look but deeply aware of the comma splices all around him. He needed help. He needed the professionals. The Solution While our proofreaders are all trained to handle regular punctuation errors, this was something different. We had to call in Lady Grammaticus. Nobody knows where Lady Grammaticus came from. Or even her real name. But when punctuation gets spooky, you want her in your corner. Spelling errors and sentence fragments everywhere fear her for good reason. She even defeated the Cursed Colon of Connecticut. Thankfully, Lady Grammaticus had heard of something like this before. She told us the story of Aldus Manutius, the Venetian scholar who invented the modern comma. She claimed that Manutius achieved this innovation in punctuation after making a deal with an unknown power from beyond this world. And the Eternal Comma Splice was the price he paid. This terrible typo followed Manutius around for the rest of his life. You can even see it on his tombstone. But it didn’t end there. The comma splice spread, moving from mind to mind, from document to document, driving all who tried to correct it insane. But the comma splice had not met Proofed’s team of professional editors before. Armed with knowledge of what we were up against, we loaded up Mr. Robins’ document, printed it out, and carefully added a dot above the comma to turn it into a semicolon while Lady Grammaticus chanted in Latin. As the ceremony reached its climax, the semicolon began to glow. Epilogue It’s hard to say whether it was proofreading or, technically, an exorcism. But the semicolon was still there after the glow had faded, connecting two independent clauses just like a good semicolon should. And when we looked at the computer screen again, the comma splice was gone, replaced by a semicolon. It took a while to convince Mr. Robins that everything was all right, but he seemed reassured after we bought a copy of the New York Times to show him that it was splice free. Thus the tale of the haunted comma splice comes to its end. But who knows when evil punctuation will strike next? The world is full of demonic dashes and abhorrent apostrophes, just waiting for a chance to foul your writing by appearing in the wrong place. So, wherever you are and whatever you’re writing, make sure to proofread carefully! Happy Halloween!

Find a newpaper article on wine industry and draw a link to a Assignment

Find a newpaper article on wine industry and draw a link to a macroecnomic concept - Assignment Example The key concept the article deals with is the demand and supply side of the wine industry. In order to gain an in depth understanding of these two mechanisms, aggregate demand and supply analysis needs to be made. This is necessary because the article highlights that other industries such as tourism and manufacturing have also suffered losses in the recent past. The aggregate demand (AD) is the total amount of goods and services that are demanded by the domestic householders, government, private businesses and the foreign consumers at a certain price level. The aggregate supply (AS) is the real output of an economy at a certain price level. AD and AS will change as price level changes and the mechanism that AD, AS varies at different price level in turn indicated the equilibrium real output and the equilibrium price level of an economy taking into account the equilibrium of product, monetary and labor (employment) markets. The article focuses on the macro-economic and micro-economic factors that are troubling the Australian wine industry. The article explores the reason for Australian company Foster’s parting away with its wine business. First, it highlights the many macro-economic factors such as global economic slowdown and strengthening of Australian currency to be responsible for weak sales figures. But the major argument of the article is that the domestic consumption of Australian wines has decreased. The reason is said to be ‘conservative consumerism’ emerging among the Australians. To highlight this new phenomenon the article mentions the rise in sales of cheaper French wine. The figure below depicts change in Pricing and Aggregate supply with shift in Aggregate demand. In the news article the writer supports the decision of Foster’s to dissociate itself with its wine business. As mentioned earlier, there are many reasons given for this step. The reasons

Gendering Social Work Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Gendering Social Work - Essay Example As a social worker, it is my duty to extend maximum possible help to Iona. The needs of the older people are often neglected by the societies all over the world and UK is also not an exception. Most of the societies look seriously at the needs of the younger generation because of the possible contribution the society may receive from younger people in future. For example, child health and education are some of the major areas in which the society has no hesitancy to spend more. On the other hand, the needs of the older generation are often neglected by the society because of the concerns about the spending in non-productive sector. Older people have already contributed heavily to the society and it is ethically wrong to neglect them when they need the social support badly. â€Å"Social workers cannot avoid the contradictory nature of their role but sometimes they need to take a stand and show which side they are on† (Searing, 2008). The need of Iona for a sexual relationship even at the age of 82 is difficult for me to digest. But as a social worker, I cannot keep a hatred feeling towards Iona as my primary aim is to help Iona in all possible means. Probably the desire put forward by Iona cannot be fulfilled and it is not my duty to help her in this regard. But, I should accept the fact that different people may have different needs irrespective of their age and they have every right to follow their life philosophies. Dench et al (2006) have argued that the culture of entitlement in contemporary Britain may itself need to be reconsidered if further breakdown of order is to be avoided. Not only it is working against the legitimacy of the welfare state, but it may be working against the integrity of the society (Dench et al 2006 p.7). The culture and life philosophies are changing day by day based on the advancements in thinking, life styles. It is difficult for the current generation to follow the traditions, customs

Journal Assignments Essay Example for Free

Journal Assignments Essay Topic 1 The Critical Role that Parents played in the learning and social development of Children with Disabilities The reading on this particular topic is concern about the critical role of parents towards the education of children with disabilities. The author cited that in the past and even today, parents have been blamed by teachers and professionals for their children’s learning and social problems claiming that parents are responsible towards their children’s development. In the particular research regarding the role of parents with their children with learning and social disabilities, the author cited that parents are not entirely to blame for their children’s learning and social disabilities.    Instead the author pointed out the neurological organization theory which had placed all the burdens to parents regarding their children’s learning and social problem (p. 109). This line of reasoning is challenging because most of us are used to the idea that parents are responsible for their children. Nevertheless, I would agree with the author that parents are not to blame completely especially in the context of what the author calls â€Å"reciprocal effects† wherein researchers have found that some babies, especially those with disabilities, â€Å"are born with difficult temperaments, which can influence how their parents respond to them† (p. 110). For me this is interesting because it shows how parents care for their children. It is also interesting to note that the government is doing its part in order to insure that children with disabilities are given necessary attention and care so that as they grow they will realize that despite of their disabilities they are part of the normal society. Indeed play a critical role in helping meet the needs of children with disabilities. With the enactment of Individuals with Disabilities Education Act, the author cited the teachers and professionals are now cooperating closely with parents as this law provides parents opportu nities to participate in activities relating to forming curriculum for their children’s learning and social development. New Learning and relevance What I have learn from this reading is that parents with children with learning and social disabilities should not be ashamed to bring them into the society as there are a lot of opportunities awaiting them. Many parents having this problem would not dare to admit their child has learning disability. But the lesson that could be drawn here is that they should not be ashamed to admit this reality, instead recognized their child’s need for special attention, special care, and special education which could be provided to them by the government through the help of special education teachers. This learning is relevant to my work with children with learning disabilities as it helped me realized my responsibility towards these special children. Topic 2 Prevention of Learning Disabilities Discussion Can learning disability be prevented? What is this all about? At first glance on the first question, this seemed impossible as we do not know the new born child will have learning and social disabilities when he or she grows up. Besides, I am used to the fact that most of the programs for children with disability are concerned about correcting if not merely to comply with the provision of No Child Left behind Act, as this law provides that all children including those with disabilities have an access to quality education. But before going into detail, let’s answer the second question. There are three types of learning disabilities prevention namely: the primary, the secondary, and the tertiary prevention. Primary prevention is concern about keeping the disability from occurring. This could be done by reducing the chances of brain injury, by improving teacher’s skills particularly in behavior management, and by providing parents necessary child-rearing skills. To achieve this goal, utmost care and protection is needed against potential causes such the one mentioned earlier. As per the reading is concern, secondary education assumes the responsibility of correcting disability after it occurs. These include keeping the disability from getting worse which could be facilitated by remedial instructions that could be provided by special education teachers.   That means that there should be close cooperation between parents and special education teachers on how their children’s disability can be corrected. The tertiary prevention which is already a higher concern goes beyond correction. It is â€Å"keeping the effects of disability from spreading to other areas of functioning† (p. 144). New learning and relevance Based on the discussion above learning disabilities are possible to occur but it can be prevented by reducing the chances of its occurrence such as brain injury, or any type of accidents during pregnancy. Learning disability can also be corrected. What is needed is utmost care, sincere effort to provide love and affection for children with disabilities, and commitment to teaching them. For, what is new here is the idea that learning disability can be prevented and corrected. My concept regarding special education for children with learning disability is to provide them education using the most appropriate instruction in order for them to be at par with normal students. I just realized that it is possible that the goal for this type of education is for corrective purpose. Given this, notion, I can develop this idea further to provide a more meaningful programs using the knowledge I just gained. Topic 3 Technology assisted instruction for Children with Disabilities Discussion What is this topic all about? The idea of technology assisted instruction for children with disabilities seemed odd because these children need somebody whom they can hold, can communicate with them, and somebody who will show them affection. But today, according to experiments computer assisted instruction or CAI is an instructional task option â€Å"that can be used with good results for teaching preacademic or basic academic skills.† Findings on the use of computer assisted instruction for children with early childhood learning impairment (ECLI) reveals that CAI can be a good tool towards the promotion of skills generalization and for motivating students to participate in the study. According to the reading, children enjoyed interaction and the control they had with the computer. It also facilitates teacher and students interaction through the items in the display which serve as an instant visual aid. In general, researchers in this type of instruction listed quite a number of benefits on the use of CAI both for teachers and students. New Learning and relevance Given this development, this study is certainly interesting and relevant because of the current trend in the use of technology almost in every realm from communication to identification, and now for learning instructions. Of course this is not really surprising given the trend of using technology, but what is surprising for me is the success that it has contributed to teaching/learning situation of early childhood learning impaired students. This is something new as we are used to see this job done by a real person skilled in teaching special education to children with learning disability. Given this findings, those who are computer literate will surely feel comfortable because they can further enhance the benefit of using their computer. In my case I can use this knowledge by creating programs in the computer that could further enhance the learning process. This is exactly the reason why I chose this topic being computer proficient my self.

The African Trilogy - ‘writing back’ to Mister Johnson :: Essays Papers

The African Trilogy - ‘writing back’ to Mister Johnson The African Trilogy has been the subject of much critical discussion since the publication of Things Fall Apart forty years ago. Some of this critical work has focused on the trilogy as a postcolonial work, ‘writing back’ to the previous colonial works on Africa, such as those produced by Joseph Conrad and Joyce Cary. Achebe has himself alluded to these works as part of his motivation for becoming a writer, calling them â€Å"appalling novels† about Africa. More specifically he has said: â€Å"I know around ‘51, ‘52, I was quite certain that I was going to try my hand at writing, and one of the things that set me thinking was Joyce Cary’s novel, set in Nigeria, Mister Johnson, which was praised so much, and it was clear to me that it was a mostsuperficial picture of - not only of the country - but even of the Nigerian character, and so I thought if this was famous, then perhaps someone ought to look at this from the inside† ( Duerden Dennis, and Cosmo Pieterse, eds. African Writers Talking: A Collection of Radio Interviews. London: Heinemann, 1972.) Looking at this ‘from the inside’, involved drawing on the model of his own Igbo society and its oral traditions. By reconstructing a picture and narrative of Africa, and using Cary’s fiction as a point of departure, Achebe set out to challenge the colonialist depiction of Africans and their society. Although both Mister Johnson and The African Trilogy are concerned with similar issues, the ways in which these issues are confronted are strikingly different. In contrast to the simple, baby-like natives of Cary’s novel, Achebe’s characters are complex, multi-dimensional figures in their own right. While the African society of Mister Johnson is portrayed as uncivilized, simple, corrupt, the Igbo society of Things Fall Apart is shown as having grown from a long tradition of careful decision-making and a carefully system of religious, social and political beliefs. A rebuttal to the African world portrayed by Cary takes the form of an intelligent portrayal of the character of Okonkwo and the society of Umuofia. As opposed to Cary, Achebe explores, in depth, the relationship between the individual and the social context in which his emotional and psychological make-up has developed. In addition, he gives us in Okonkwo a protagonist we can identify with rather than laugh at : â€Å"Perhaps down in his heart Okonkwo was not a cruel man.

Organisational Behavior Notes Essay

Definition * The study of human behaviour, attitudes and performance within organisational setting to improve performance and differences. * Frameworks of theories, methods and principles from disciplines such as psychology, sociology, political * The organisational Iceberg The study of organisational behaviour embraces, therefore an understanding of * The nature and purpose of the organisation * The human element and behaviour of people * Business strategy, organisational processes and the execution of work * The process of management as an integrating and co-ordinating activity * Social responsibilities and business ethics * The external environment of which the organisation is part of and * The need for organisation success and survival. The Pyschological Contract * The PC is not a formal written document that is referred to but a people organisation relationship where mutual expectations and satisfaction of needs are implied. * Important to enhance the level of trust and teamwork. * Human capital to be seen as a responsibility and a resources to be added to * Two observations in human behaviour at work * Peter Principle * Parkinson’s law ../2 The pyschological contract: possible examples of individual and organisational expectations Individual’s expectations of the organisation * Provide safe and hygienic working conditions. * Make every reasonable effort to provide job security. * Attempt to provide challenging and satisfying jobs, and reduce alienating aspects of work. * Adopy equitable human resource management policicies and procedures. * Respect the role of trade union officials and staff representatives. * Consult fully with staff and allow genuine participation in decisions which affect them. * Implement best practice in equal opportunity policies and precedures. * Reward all staff fairly according to their contribution and performance. * Provide reasonable opportunities for personal development and career progression. * Treat members of staff wit respect. * Demonstrate an understanding and considerate attitude towards personal problems of staff. Organisation’s Expectations of the Individual * Uphold the ideology of the organisation and the corporate image. * Work diligently in pursuit of organisational objectives. * Adhere to the rules, policicies and procedures of the organisation. * Respect the reasonable authority of senior members of staff. * Not to take advantage of goodwill shown by the management. * Be responsive to the leadership influence. * Demonstrate loyalty, respect confidentiality and not betray positions of trust. * Maintain harmonious relationships with work colleagues. * Not to abuse organisational facilities such as email or internet access. * Observe reasonable and acceptable standards of dress and appearance. * Show respect and consolidation to customers and suppliers. A pyshcological contract is not only measured in monetary value or in exchange of goods or services, it is in essence the exchange or sharing beliefs and values, expectations and satisfactions. Mutuality is the base principle of the pyshcological contract and consensus or mutual understanding is the basis of mutuality. Ideally therefore self-interest should be balanced with common interest in a win-win arrangement. In the past this unspoken contract might have implied that employees could expect job security and adequate rewards from their employer in exchange for hard work and loyalty. Today’s pyshological contract may be different, in line with a changed working environment that includes factors such as increased rationalism, technological changes, and management aproaches such as outsourcing. The new pyschological contract may revolve more around an employer’s willingness to assist you in developing your skills to order to maintain your marketability. The Peter Principle This is concerned with the study of occupational incompetence and the study of hierarchies. In a hierarchy every employee tends to rise to their level of incompetence. Employees competence in their postion are promoted and competence is each new position qualifies for promotion to the next highest posotion until a position of incompetence is reached. The principle is based on perceived incompetence in all levels of every hierarchy political, legal, educational and industrial and ways in whcih employees move upwards through a hierarchy and what happens to them after promotion. Peter suggests tow main means by which a person can effect their promotion rate. â€Å"Pull and push†. * Pull is an employee’s relationship – by blood, marriage and acqaintance – with a person above the employee in the hierarchy. * Push is sometimes manifested by an abnormal interest in study, vocational training and self-improvement. In small hierarchies push may have a marginal effect in accelerating promotion; in larger hierarchies the effect is minimal. Pull is therefore, likely to be more effective than Push. Parkinson’s Law A major feature of PL is that of the rising pyramid, that is â€Å"Work expands so as to fill the time available for its completion. There is little, if any, relationship between the quantity of work to be done and the number of staff doing it. Underlying this tendency are two statements; * An official wants to multiply subordinates, not rivals * Officials make work for each other What is driving leaders & organisations behaviour? * The continuous importance that consumers base on value of product and service. * The diverse workforce is also an important factor that drives organisational behaviour. * Consumers expect that organisation understands their needs and produces top quality products at best price possible. These demands place leaders in a challenged situation by domestic and global markets and competition. What are organisational factors? * Organisational factors may be identified as the organisational environment, structure & design * Individual characteristics, group behaviour * Overall decision making * The change processes adopted by the organisation The fast momentum in any industry highlights the importance of the leader to align the human resources with the organisational factors. Framing the Organisational behaviour Organisational behaviour may be studied under the following main contributors * The environment * The individual in the organisation * Group behaviour and interpersonal influence * Organisational process Organisational environment is the external and internal environment, the legal and political constraints, economic, technological changes and development all have an impact on the decisions that are taken by the management. The individual is the foundation of the organisation performance. This should therefore highlight the importance of managing individual behaviour at any level of the organisation. There are 3 important influences that mould the individual behaviour. 1. Individual characteristics 2. Individual motivation 3. Rewards Group behaviour Groups may form either intentionally by managerial decisions or form out of individual efforts. * Formal groups are groups that were intentionally created by managerial decisions * Informal groups are groups that form out of common interests and friendships that may have a negative or positive effect and therefore affect the organisation or individual performance. * Organisational processes are the communication, the decision making and the leadership elements that the organisation fosters as part of its culture and which in turn have an impact on the general performance of the individual and collective behaviour. Factors of organisation process Communication process is the ability of management to receive, transmit and act on information. The information integrates the internal activities with the external demand and information also integrates internally the activities of the organisation. Decision making process Decisions by managers have a direct impact on the employees well being, the organisation’s resources and the design and implementation of rules in a organisation. This should illustrate the importance of managers to communicate, assess and analyse the feedback of decisions and practises in the organisation. Leadership process Leaders in an organisation may be managers and non- managers. The manager may not always be the leader, yet leadership skills contribute in attaining the set goals. Some people believe that leadership styles should vary according to the situation, other believe that one style of leadership is effective in most situations. Importance of effectiveness * Surviving in the environment * Organisation ages- it forms, develops, matures and declines Importance of the Dimension of Time Quality, productivity, efficiency, satisfaction, adaptiveness and development are 6 general categories of effectiveness criteria. Each of the categories have a time base, short run criteria – 1 year, intermediate 5 years, long run are those for which the indefinite future is applicable. Personality Individual difference and work behaviour * Individual differences have a direct effect on behaviour because peole who perceive things differently behave differently. * Individual differences shape organisaitional behaviour and consequently, individual and organisaitional success. What is the ASA framework? This is the attraction- selection-attrition to careers and organisations. * Prospective employees are attracted to careers and organisations. * Organisations elect employees on the basis of the needs of the organisation. * Attrition occurs when individuals discover that they do not belong to the organisation. Studying individual differences at the work place is important since not addressing differences among employees may hinder from achieving organisation and personal goals. Understanding work behaviour Inorder to fully understand where individual differences arise the personal environment also needs to be given attention, weight and considered. Heredity factors are also important. An effective management must; * Observe and recognise the dufferences and * Study relationship between variables that influences individual behaviour. For discussion * What are the variables at work? * Give examples of work behaviour. Can you think of how these may be fostered on connected? The following variables impact employee productivity, creativity and performance extensively; * Heredity factors and diversity * Abilities and skills * Attitudes Heredity factors Gender, race and ethnic background are all heredity factors, mental and moral differences are also influenced by genetic inheritance and such factors mould each individual which in turn have a direct effect at work behaviour. 1.a Diversity * Diversity refers to those attributes that make people different from another. Primary dimensions of diversity include age, ethicity, gender, pyshical attributes, race and sexual orientation. When an employee is harassed as a resukt of diversity, due to isolation they become less enthusiastic in their job. * Managing diversity therefore ensures that employees become top level contributors especially in today’s †¦ Abilities and Skills * Ability is a pesson’s talent to perform a mental or pyshical task. * Skill is a learned talent that a person has acquired to perform a task. * Ability tends to be stable over time while skill tends to change according to training and experience. One needs ability to be a sales executive (appearance and manners are important) yet one may attain skills with years of experience in sales. * Mental ability therefore refers to the level of intelligence including comprehension, indicative or deictive reasoning, body language, associative memory etc. * Tacit knowledge is the work related to practical know how of the employees acquired eitehr through observation or direct experience on the job. Emotional intelligence – When you probe people to get to know them more * It is important that managers assess and attest abilities and skills snice no amount of leadership and motivation can make up for such deficiencies- job analysis therefore becomes important. * Job analysis is the process of defining and studying a job interms of tasks and behaviour and specifying responsibilities, education and training needes to perform a job – therefore removes guess work when recruiting. Attitudes Attitudes are deteriments of behaviour because they are linked with perception, personaility, fdeelings, etc therfore has a certain amount of importance to the managers. Attitudes are * Learned * Define one’s predeposition towards a given aspect or situation * Provide the emotional basis of one’s interpersonal relations and identifications with other * Attitudes are close to the core of personaility * Some attitudes are persistent and enduring while others are liable to change over time. Changing attitudes at the workplace How can a manager change attitudes of his employees? The process depends on three main factors / contributors 1. The Communicator 2. The Message 3. The Situation The Communicator * If the communicator is trusted and the employees perceive the manager as having prestige, they are more likely to change their attitudes. Employees change because they try to identify with a liked communicator and tend to adopt attitudes and behaviour of the liked individual. * A manager with a low prestige is not show respect / trust by peers and superiors – therefore more difficult to change attitudes of his team. The Message * Intentional and unintentional messages are delivered through verbal and no nverbal communication by managers. * The message delivered to employees has to be clear, understandable and convincing. * Developing persuasive verbal and non verbal communication skills is essential to managers. The Situation * The managers success in delivering a change in attitude also depends on the situation when the message is being delivered. * Distraction and pleasant surroundings are two factors that facilitate change in attitude (perks, performance allowance, training opportunities†¦) Is job satisfaction an attitude? Job satisfaction results from the perception of the job itself and the degree which there is a good fit between the individual and the organisation Factors to consider * Pay – not just the pay but the perceived fairness. * The work itself – are job tasks considered interesting? Do they provide opportunities for learning and accepting further / higher responsibilities? * Supervision – technical competence and interpersonal skills of the immediate boss. * Co workers – extent to which co workers are friendly, competent and supportive. Advancement opportunities – availability of opportunities Work conditions – the physical work environment is comfortable and supportive of productivity. Job security – it is reasonable expectation that one’s position is secure and contured employment within the organisation. Job relation in relation to Job performance on Effectiveness Are these 2 factors related or dependant on each other? * Attempts by management to satisfy employees may not mean higher performance while high performance may not mean that the employers are satisfied at work. * Discuss the ripple effects of rewards, warnings, absenteeism, fair promotion etc. That these have on job performance in general. Effect on OC Personality Personality refers to a relatively stable set of feelings and behaviour that have been significantly formed by genetic and environmental factors. * The manager attempting to understand his employees must give attention to the major forces that shape personality. * Cultural forces, heredity, family, relationship and social class are all factors that mould personality. How? * Culture – society, institutes various pattern behaviour with the result that members of a culture have common personality characteristics. * Heredity – varies from personality to another but are not constant since it is associated with values or ideals (temperament) * Family relationships – the experience one has with his parents, grandmothers, other family members / life experiences. * Social class – influences one’s self perception, perception of others, of work, of authority of money factor. * Personality is therefore a product (a number of forces that together have attributed to shape the unique individual). Personality is interrelated with perception, attitudes, learning and motivation – therefore analysis behaviour is incomplete unless personality is considered. Personality and Behaviour in Organisations The big five Personality Dimensions is key in understanding organisational behaviour. 1. Extroversion (Open minded, sociable, etc) 2. Emotional (Stability) 3. Agreeableness (More open to people, challenges and change) 4. Conscientousness (to understand your people’s attraction) Other three major factors are: Locus of control This relates to the extent to which employees believe that their behaviour will influence what happens to them. (Differing personalities of Internals & Externals). Self efficacy Personal beliefs of competencies and abilities. This has an impact on Org behaviour and decisions like selection, training programmes and goal setting and performance. Creativity This is a personality trait that requires deviation from the normal thinking to produce new and useful ideas. (Think in an unconventional way). While a personality factor of the individual organisations play an important role to develop creativity at work by giving opportunities and freedom to think and come forward with new ideas. Reward winning ideas and discuss failures positively to nourish creativity all round. The Importance of Culture National Culture is the sum total of the beliefs, rituals, rules, customs, artefacts and institution that characterise the population. How organisational transactions are conducted is affected by nation’s culture and its subcultures. Values, customs and rituals of cultures do not simply appear. They are revolutionary and are influenced by politics, religion, language and cultural aspects. Managing in the 21st century For effective management understanding different cultures and various organisational cultures is important in the 21st century. ../9 ../9 Adaptation to new environment is becoming a common occurrence and although adaptation from one origin to another is always difficult, it can be better understood by learning about organisational culture. Organisational Culture Organisational culture is the shared values, norms, beliefs and norms which influence the way employees think, feel and act towards others inside and outside the organisation. OC gives unique identity to an organisation Although culture cannot be seen, it can be sensed and felt through a person’s attitudes, emotions and perceptions. â€Å"The way we do things around here† Deal and Kennedy 1982 â€Å"The collective programming of the mind†, Geert Hofstede 2001. Hostede identified four dimensions of culture: power distance, uncenrtainty, avoidance, individualism and masculinity. Power distance is essentially used to categorise levels of inequity in organisations which Hofstede claims will depend upon managment style, willingness of subordinates to diasgree with superiors, and the educational level and status accruing to particular roles. Uncertainty avoidance refers to the extent to which members of a society feel threatened by unusual situations. High uncertainty avoidance is said to be characteristic in France, Spain, Germany and many Latin American societies. Individualism describes the relatively individualistic or collectivisit ethic evident in that particular society. The USA, France and Spain display high individualism. Masculinity refers to a continuum between masculine charactertistics such as assertiveness and competitiveness, and feminine traits such as caring, a stress upon the quality of life and concern with the environment. Can organisational culture be created by management? * Ann Cunliffe (2008) states that OC is important for 4 reasons *Slaps the image that the public has as an organisation * Influences organisational performance * Provide direction to the company * Help to attract and retain motivated staff Creating the desired OC may be difficult since imposing a particular culture may not be met with resistance. Why? Is disparity between what the management states as values and the reality with the employee an issue? What organisational factors may be attributed to the development of a desired OC? Communication is an organisational factor that is an important factor is developing and fostering an OC Why? Discuss with example? Communicating top down only leaves management out of touch from the real situation and may lead to a gap in culture that management wants to create another culture that actually develops. Uncover the levels of cultures Artefacts – Visible organisational structures and processes (had to decipher). Annual report, newsletter, furnishings are examples of artefacts. Espoused Values – Strategies, goals, philosophies (espoused justifications). Assumptions that tell individuals how to perceive, think and feel about work, human relationships and performance of colleagues. Basic underlying assumptions – Unconscious taken for granted beliefs, perceptions, thoughts and feelings (ultimate sources of values and actions). Summary with examples of Schein’s three levels of culture * Surface manifestation of culture – most accessible forms which are visible and audible behaviour patterns and objects (observable culture, send a message) * Organisational values – the accumulated beliefs held about how work hold be done and situations dealt with that guide employee behaviour ( be honest, be creative, work hard) * Basic assumption – invisible perceptions, taken for granted understandings, held by individual with an organisation concerning behaviour, the nature of reality and its relationship to its environment (stability, excellence, quality and responsibility). Where does OC come from? Values are the basic element that distinguishes one organisation from the other. Changing organisation structure and its process will mean a change in values and therefore a change in culture. Why? Discuss the difference on a change from tall hierarchy to a change in flat hierarchy.